Alekhya – Page 2 – Learn KSEEB

KSEEB Class 8 SSLC Biology Chapter 2 Reproduction in Plants Notes

November 26, 2024March 26, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 8 SSLC Biology Chapter 2 Reproduction In Plants Notes

Plants are living things and they exhibit some basic characteristics that are important for their survival and growth. Reproduction is one of the characteristic features of plants by which they reproduce so that their species survive. Thus, reproduction can be defined as the process of living beings producing young ones of their own kind.

Types Of Reproduction

There are two basic modes of reproduction in plants—Asexual (vegetative) reproduction and sexual reproduction.

KSEEB Class 8 SSLC Biology Chapter 2 Reproduction in Plants Notes

Asexual Reproduction

This method of reproduction involves a single parent which gives rise to the new individual. The offspring produced by this method are the exact copies of their parent. Amoeba, some lower organisms such as Hydra and veal reproduce by asexual reproduction. In plants, asexual reproduction takes place by the following methods:

Binary Fission

Small and lower organisms such as bacteria, Paramecium and blue-green algae reproduce through the method of binary fission. Here, the word ‘binary’ means ‘two’ and fission’ means ‘splitting’. It is a common method of reproduction in bacteria. In this method, the nucleus ReproductioninplantsBinaryfission

first splits into two and thereby, leads to the splitting up of the whole cell which finally forms Iwo identical twin cells, called the daughter cells.

Each daughter cell grows into adult individual. In algae such as Chlamydomonas, another type of fission process called multiple fission is seen as method of reproduction during unfavourable conditions. Chlamydomonas develops a protective covering when the conditions aren’t favourable. This protective covering is called cyst.

SSLC Class 8 Biology Reproduction In Plants Solutions

The cell divides again and again inside the cyst to produce many daughter cells. When the favourable conditions return, the daughter cells are released from the cyst. Each daughter cell grows into a new organism.

Budding

Reproduction by the method of budding is commonly seen in fungus, for example yeast.
In this method, a small bud-like outgrowth is seen in the parent body. This bud grows, increases in size and eventually gets detached from the parent. During the growing phase of the bud, the nucleus within the parent cell divides into two. One part moves into the bud and as a result, the detached bud is capable of growing into an independent plant

reproductioninplantsbudding inyeast

Fragmentation

In this method of asexual reproduction, the body of an organism breaks up into two or more fragments. Each part or fragment then grows into a new plant. The most common example of this kind of reproduction is seen in filamentous algae Spirogyra.

Spore Formation

Spore formation is an asexual method of reproduction in plants. The formation of spores is seen on the underside of the leaves of some ornamental plants. These spores can be compared to the seeds formed in higher plants.

In the spore formation method of reproduction, the parent plant produces hundreds of tiny spores in ‘spore cases’. When the spore case of the plant bursts, then the spores spread into the air. As the spores are very light, they keep floating in air and are carried over large distances by air.

Each spore is covered by a hard, protective coat to withstand unfavourable conditions such as high temperature and low humidity. They can survive for a long period of time.

reproductioninplantsSporeformationinfungus

Under suitable conditions, spores are capable of producing new plants. Plants such as ferns, fungi and mosses reproduce by means of spores. Fungus also produces spores.

KSEEB Notes On Reproduction In Plants For Class 8

Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation is an asexual method of reproduction in plants. It is also called vegetative propagation because the production of new plants lakes place through the vegetative parts of the plants. Vegetative propagation usually involves the growth and development of one (or more) buds on the old part of the plant to produce a new plant. These buds are in the dormant state (inactive state) in the old part of the plant.

When provided with suitable conditions (like food, moisture, warmth, etc.), these buds grow to form new plants. Some of the plants which are usually reproduced by the method of vegetative propagation are: rose, potato, ginger, turmeric, sweet potato, dahlia, mini, sugar cane, banana, bryophyllum, strawberry, gladiolus, cactus and grapes. In vegetative propagation, plants reproduce from the vegetative parts such as roots, stems and leaves. Let us understand these methods one by one.

Reproduction by Stems

The vegetative propagation in plants can be done using aerial stem, sub-aerial stem and underground stem.

By Aerial Stems

The stems (or branches) of plants normally bear buds in the ‘axils* which can be used in vegetative propagation to produce new plants. Reproduction by aerial New plants can be stem (cutting method)
obtained from the stem (or branch) of an existing plant by the method of cuttings’. A small part of stem (or branch) of a plant which is removed by making a cut with a sharp knife, is called a cutting.

reproductioninplantsReproductionbyaerial While making a cutting, care should be taken to see that there arc some buds on it. The lower end of stem cutting is buried in the moist soil. The upper part of cutting having bud on it is kept above the ground. The cutting planted in soil is watered every day The new plant grows in some time. Please note that a stem cutting or a branch cutting means the same thing. We will now describe how new plants can be grown from cuttings.

By Sub-Aerial Stems

In some plants, a slender branch coming out from the base of the stem grows and bends to touch the soil. It develops roots and buds at the point of contact with the soil. Some examples of plants that display such stems include strawberry, jasmine and mint. These plants are also called runners and stolons.

By Underground Stems

Most of the plants around us have normal stems which grow above the ground. Some of the plants, however, have modified stems which are short Fig. 2.6 Runners and and thick, and grow stolons in strawberry below the ground (or underground). Rhizome, corm, bulbs and tubers are the various kinds of underground stems. Rhizome: Rhizome is an underground stem that bears roots and shoots at the nodes. The roots and shoots develop into a new plant. Some examples of plants where rhizome is seen are grasses, canna, ginger and turmeric.
Corm: Corm is an underground stem that grows in clusters and is usually round in shape. Roots develop from the base and sides of the corm.

reproductioninplantsRunnersandandthick,andgrowstolonsinstrawberry

The examples of plants where corm is seen are gladiolus and saffron.
Bulbs: Bulb is an underground stem having a bud and membranous leaves. The membranous leaves are known as scales. The scales store food materials. The buds can grow into a new plant. Bulbs are used to grow the plants such as garlic, tulips and onion.

Tubers: Tubers are stems that grow underground and are swollen and fleshy. They serve for food storage and reproduction. Tubers develop eyes which contain buds that are capable of growing into new plants. Stored food within the tubers is used up by the buds during the process of growing into a new plant. Potato is an example of a tuber.

reproductioninplantsRhizome(ginger)Corm[gladiolus)Bulb(onion)Tuber(potato)

Aim: To observe vegetative reproduction through rhi2ome.

Procedure: Take a small piece of ginger and place in a pot conta ning soil. Cover it entirely with soil. Water it every day. After a few days, you will observe that buds are growing into new aerial shoots to form a new plant. Look at the roots of the plant now.

Observation: In ginger, buds grow into new plants and this type of stem modification is called rhizome.

Activity 1

Aim: To observe vegetative reproduction in onion through onion bulbs.
Procedure:
Take a healthy onion bulb and place it in a pot containing soil. Cover the onion bulb with soil. Water it every day. After a few days, you will observe new leaves growing. Gradually, the bud will grow into a new plant.
Observation:
Onion plants grow with the help of onion bulbs through the method of vegetative propagation.

Aim: To observe vegetative reproduction in potato.
Procedure: Take a small part of the potato with an eye. Place in a pot containing soil and cover it entirely with soil. Keep the pot in a shady place and water it every day for few days. After some days, you will observe that new leaves are growing.
Observation: The eye or the tubers of the potato grow into a new plant through vegetative propagation.

Detailed Notes On Reproduction In Plants KSEEB Class 8

Reproduction by Roots

The roots of plants normally do not bear buds. There are, however, some plants which have modified, thickened roots which bear buds. For example, sweet potato plant has modified roots thickened with stored food which are called root tubers. The root tubers of sweet potato have buds (eyes) Root form new plant on them in sweet potato which can grow to produce new sweet potato plants. Thus, sweet potato plants are reproduced by the method of vegetative propagation through their root tubers. reproductioninplantsRootformnewplantontheminsweetpotato Another plant called Dahlia also has root tubers. The root tubers of Dahlia have buds in them which can grow to produce new Dahlia plants. Thus, Dahlia plants are reproduced by the method of vegetative propagation through their root tubers. From the above discussion we conclude that the roots of some plants like sweet potato and dahlia can be used to produce new plants.

Reproduction by Leaves

Some plants reproduce themselves from leaves. The leaves of some plants develop buds on them. Such leaves having buds can be used as structures of vegetative reproduction in plants. One example of a plant which can reproduce from its leaves is Bryophyllum {Bryophyllum is also called sprout leaf plant). The leaves of Bryophyllum plant develop some buds in its margins (or edges). Wien a . . c e Adventitious Buds mature leaf ot the Bryophyllum plant falls on the ground, then each bud can grow into a new plant. reproductioninplantsLeafofBryophyllum

Sometimes, even before a leaf drops off from „ Leaf of Bryophyllum a Bryophyllum plant, we can see new plantlets already growing on it. Thus, the leaves of Bryophyllum plant can produce new plants. Another plant called begonia also reproduces by vegetative propagation through its leaves. The begonia plant has buds on its leaves which can grow into new plants when the leaves fall on the ground. From this discussion we conclude that the two plants, Bryophyllum and begonia, can be reproduced from their leaves.

Aim: To grow Bryophyllum by vegetative reproduction.
Procedure: Take a full grown leaf of Bryophyllum having buds growing out from its margin. Cut the leaf in such a way so that each contains a adventitious bud. Put these pieces in a flower pot so as bud projects out from surface of soil and water it. Observe for 10-12 days.
Observation: The adventitious buds of Bryophyllum grow into a new plant when conditions suitable for growth are provided.

KSEEB SSLC Class 8 Biology Chapter 2 Summary

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Several artificial methods have been developed to promote vegetative propagation by horticulturists. These methods are also called vegetative propagation and it includes cutting, layering, grafting and tissue culture. Let us discuss each of them in detail.
Cutting: The method of cutting the stem into small pieces and planting the cut end in soil is known as cutting. The piece of Cutting method for stem eventually rose P|ant bears roots and new leaves and grows into an adult plant. Examples of plants where the artificial vegetative propagation is carried out by means of cutting are money plant, rose and China rose. Grafting: This method is used to obtain a plant by combining two different plants. Thus, it produces a variety with the features of two different plants.

In this method, a stem cutting called scion (without roots) from one plant is attached and tied to the other stem cutting part called stock (with roots). This process is similar to cutting except the cut part is attached to the stem instead of planting in the soil. When a portion of a cut stem is grafted onto another stem, the cut stem is fixed properly and covered with tape, so that it becomes part of the host plant and continues to grow. The grafted stem is usually added for more flowers and fruits as good qualities of both the plant are combined in die host plant. Grafting is most commonly seen in rose plant where higher yield of rose flowers is achieved.

reproductioninplantsCuttingmethodforrosePlant

Layering: In this method, a portion of the aerial stem is made to grow roots while it is still attached to the parent plant and later is detached from it, so that it grows into an independent plant. In reproductioninplantsGraftingmethodusedtogrowplants

reproductioninplantsLayeringofplant

this method, a part of the lower branch of the plant is bent down, so that it touches the soil and a layer of bark is removed from the place where it touches the soil. The part of the lower branch Lhal is touching the soil, is then covered with soil and a small object such as a small piece of wood is placed over it lightly so that the branch remains in the soil. After a few days, roots begin to grow from this branch and then, the branch is cut off from the parent plant. It slowly grows to become an independent plant.

The advantage of this method is that the branch continues to receive nutrition from the parent plant till the time it is able to sustain itself independently. Layering is carried out in plants such as climbing rose, mint and raspberries.

Tissue Culture

Tissue culture involves the production or growth of plants in synthetic medium under artificial conditions in laboratory. Here, a kind of plant of an existing plant in a test tube. The medium used to grow plants in a test tube is rich in nutrients and suitable for the growth of the specific plant. An unorganized mass of cell known as callus develops from it.

The callus is put in a hormone containing medium which induce cell differentiation and formation of plantlets. The plantlets develop into an independent plant when transferred to the soil. Some examples of plants that arc cultivated using tissue culture technique are orchids, asparagus, chrysanthemum, etc.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

It is a faster method to produce a new plant.
The offspring will be exactly the same as the plant.
The plants produced by vegetative propagation bear flowers and fruits earlier than the new plants produced by seeds.
It is a very useful method for production of seedless plants such as grapes and banana.

Disadvantages Of Vegetative Propagation

As the plants developed through vegetative propagation are identical, there is a chance that in case if there is a disease in a farm, then it will affect all plants simultaneously.
It can result in the destruction of entire crop. As there is no dispersal of plants, there are chances of overcrowding.

Sexual Reproduction In Plants

The plants that have flowers are called flowering plants. Most of the flowering plants reproduce by sexual reproduction method. In this method, there is an involvement of male and female organs or gametes. Let us understand the structure and various parts of a flower.

Flower (the reproductive part)

Flowers contain the sexual reproductive organs of a plant. In most of the plants, the same flower contains the male organ as well as the female organ. The function of a flower is to make male and female gametes, and to ensure that fertilisation will take place to make seeds for growing new plants. In other words, flowers perform the function of reproduction in plants by producing seeds of the plant. Thus, flowers are for sexual reproduction in plants.

Free KSEEB Notes On Class 8 Reproduction In Plants

Floral Parts of a Flower

A typical flower has four major parts arranged in rings or whorls—calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. The whorls are arranged on a fleshy base called receptacle.

reproductionnplantsPartsofaflower Each of these parts has a specific role to play. Some flowers may or may not contain one or more of the parts, however the same function may be done by some other part of the plant.

Calyx

The green, leaf-like parts in the outermost circle of a flower are called sepals. All the sepals taken together are called ‘calyx*. In some flowers, the sepals may be differently coloured. The sepals cover and protect the inner parts of the flower in the bud stage.

Corolla

This is the second whorl of the flower and is made of brightly coloured petals. The petals lie inside the sepals. Ail the petals taken together are called ‘corolla’. The petals are usually scented. The function of petals is to attract insects (for pollination) and to protect the reproductive organs which are at the centre of the flower.

Androecium

This is the male reproductive part of the flower and is made up of stamens. A stamen is made up of a long slender filament and a broad anther at the lip. This anther contains several pollen grains that are in a form of a yellowish powdery substance. Pollen grains contain the male gametes (nucleus).

Gynoecium

This is the female reproductive part of the flower and is the innermost whorl. It consists of pistils or carpels. Each pistil is made up of an enlarged ovary at the base, a long slender style and a broad stigma at the tip. Stigma, style and ovary are collectively termed as carpel. The stigma is sticky in nature which is basically to attach the pollens dispersed in air.

The style is a tube that leads from the stigma to the ovary and helps in passage of the pollen to the ovary. The ovules contain the female gametes that develop into seeds after fertilization. Ovary is the swollen part of the style. The ovary consists of ovules, which are the female gametes.

Pollination

For the male gamete to be able to combine with the female gamete, it is necessary that first the pollen grains from the anther of stamen of a flower should be carried to the stigma of pistil The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a pistil is called pollination. Pollination can occur in two ways: self-pollination and cross- pollination.

Self-pollination

‘The transfer of the pollen grains from the stamens produced in one flower to the stigma of the same flower or the stigma of another flower blooming on the same plant is known as self-pollination.

Cross-pollination

When the pollen grains from the anther of a flower on one plant are transferred to the stigma of a flower on another similar plant, it is called cross- pollination. There are several agents of pollination such as insects, wind and water.

reproductioninplantsSelfandcrosspollination

Pollination by Insects

When an insect sits on the flower of a plant for sucking nectar, then the pollen grains from the anther of this flower stick to its body. And when this insect now sits on another flower to suck nectar, then the pollen grains sticking to its body are transferred to the stigma of this second flower. In this way, the insects transfer pollen grains from flower to flower and curry out pollination. Insects, such as, beetles and butterflies visit flowers for nectar and in the process helps in the pollination. Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers:

The insect pollinated flowers have large, bright coloured, petals.
These flowers are scented so as to attract insects for pollination.
These flowers possess nectar, which is used as a food by insects.
Also these flowers produce sticky pollens which get stuck on the body of insects and are carried by them to other flowers.

reproductioninplantsPollinationbyinsects

Pollination by Wind

The blowing wind carries pollen grains from one flower to other flowers and helps in pollination. Wind pollinated flowers do not have large, brightly coloured and scented petals or nectar because they do not have to attract insects. The wind pollinated flowers have anthers that

reproduction inplantsPollinationbywind

hang outside the flowers to catch the wind. They produce large amount of light, small pollen grains which can blow in the wind. The wind-pollinated flowers also have spreading and feathery stigmas to catch the airborne pollen grains. Some of the wind-pollinated flowers are in plants such as grass, maize, rice, sugar cane, bamboo and palms. Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers:

They have long anthers protruding outside the flower so that pollens move to stigma of other plants easily with moving air.
Pollens produced by wind pollinated plants are lighter so that they can be carried away easily.
These plants produce large quantities of pollens so as to increase the probability of fertilisation.

Explanation Of Reproduction In Plants KSEEB Class 8

Pollination by Water

Plants that are pollinated by water are usually aquatic. However, all aquatic plants arc not necessarily pollinated by water. Some plants such as lotus have flowers that bloom outside water and these are then pollinated by insects. Water pollinated plants include vallisneria and pond weeds. The pollens float in water and when they come in contact with the stigma of the female flower, they get attached and undergo fertilisation.

reproductioninplantsPollinationbywater

Characteristics of water pollinated flowers:

In water pollinated plants, male and female flowers are borne on separate plants.
Pollen grains arc produced by these plants in large quantities.
Flowers in these plants are lighter and smaller so that they can float on the surface of water.

Artificial Pollination

Artificial pollination is usually carried out to improve the variety of a particular plant. In this method, crops of desired characteristics, called parent crops, are selected. During this process, the gynoecium of the flower is kept covered with paper or polybag, so that pollination does not take place naturally. Once the stigma of the flower of one crop plant matures, carefully selected pollens from flowers of other crop plant are placed on these stigmas.

The seeds produced in this manner possess good characteristics of both plants and this new variety is known as hybrid. Several varieties of plants of fruits such as mango, and grains such as rice, maize and wheat are produced in this manner. The hybrid plant produced is of superior quality.

Fertilisation

After pollen reaches the stigma of another flower of the same species, it starts to grow by forming a pollen tube. This pollen lube has two male nuclei. It travels down the style and enters the ovules in ovary. In the ovary, pollen tube releases male cells which fuse with female cells to produce zygote. The process in which the male gamete present in pollen grain fuses (joins) with the female gamete present in ovule to form a new cell called zygote is called fertilisation.

reproductioninplantsFertilisationinplants

The ovule that contains the fertilised egg eventually develops into a seed. The ovary enlarges and converts into the fruit that bears the seeds. The covering of the ovule alters and changes into the seed coat.

Keywords

Whorl: A circular arrangement of petals and sepals around a point or axis in a flower Reproduction: The process of living beings producing young ones of their own kind
Asexual reproduction: The formation of new plants from cells of an existing plant
Sexual reproduction: The formation of new plants due to the fusion of male and female gametes
Binary fission: Parent body divides into two halves to produce two daughter cells. It is a common method of reproduction in bacteria
Callus: An unorganised mass of cell
Fertilisation: The male nucleus fuses with the egg cell or female gamete present inside the ovule and zygote is formed
Grafting: A stem cutting called scion (without roots) plant is attached and tied to the other stem cutting part called stock (with roots)
Pollination: The transfer of the pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of the same flower is known as pollination

Summary

Living beings need to reproduce, so that their species survives.
Plants reproduce by means of asexual or sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction does not involve fusion of male and female sex cells. In sexual reproduction, fusion of male and female cells takes place and both the parents are involved.
There are various ways of vegetative propagation in plants. The lower plants follow the method of fission, budding, fragmentation and spore formation. The higher plants reproduce or multiply by using the parts such as roots, stems or leaves.
Several artificial methods have been developed to promote vegetative propagation by horticulturists and these include cutting, layering, grafting and tissue culture.
A typical flower consists of the stalk, calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Each of these parts has a specific role to play.
Androecium is the male part of the flower. It consists of many threads-like structures called stamens which have a filament that bears an anther at the top.
Gynoecium is the female part of flower. The main parts of gynoecium are stigma, style, ovule and ovary.
Pollination is usually of two kinds—self-pollination and cross-pollination.
There are several agents of pollination such as insects, wind and water.
The male nucleus fuses with the egg cell or female gamete present inside the ovule and zygote is formed. This process of fusion is called fertilizaton.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 4 Public Finance and Budget Notes

November 23, 2024March 25, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 4 Public Finance And Budget Notes

Meaning of Public Finance and its Importance

Each family earns its income by working in jobs in the agricultural, industrial or service sector.
Balancing the income and expenditure by an individual or a family and thereby achieving progress, is an art.
When the expenditure is more than the income, it leads to debt.
‘Personal Finance’ deals with the kind of income, expenditure and debt management of an individual.
In the same manner, the government manages its finance. It is called ‘Public Finance’.
The government manages public finance according to fiscal policy.
Developing countries like India utilizes public finance in order to eradicate poverty and unemployment, regulate financial upheavals and commodity prices, and thereby establish financial stability.
In India, the financial year starts from 1st April and ends on 31st March of the successive year.

Budget

The statement of estimated income and expenditure of a year prepared by the government is called Budget.
The central and state governments present their own budgets.
Every year, the government presents a budget in both the Houses in February or March.
Through this budget, the government tries to achieve the objectives of its fiscal policies.
In India, the Central budget is prepared by the Finance Minister in consultation with the finance department.
The Finance Minister introduces the Central budget in the Lok Sabha in February or March.
Budgets are of three types: Surplus Budget, Deficit Budget and Balanced Budget.
In India, the government normally presents a deficit budget and tries to achieve economic progress.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 4 Public Finance And Budget Notes

Public Expenditure and Public Income

The government spends money for various purposes like defence, administration, economic development and welfare of the people. This is called Public Expenditure’.
The expenditure of the Central Government is of two types: Revenue Expenditure and Capital Expenditure.
Revenue expenditure is classified into two groups: Planned Expenditure and Non-planned Expenditure.
The government spends money on administration, national economic development and citizen’s welfare.
Under the Central Planned Expenditure, the government spends money on three types of services and development.
They are: Financial Services, Social Services and General Services.
The government collects income from varied sources for its expenditure. This is called ‘Public Revenue’.
The Central Government collects its income from various sources. These sources can be classified under two heads as Revenue Receipts and Capital Receipts.
The money paid by the citizens without any expectation in return is called tax.
Taxes are the major sources of revenue for the government.
The principle used by the government in the imposition of taxes is called Principle of Progressive Taxation.
The taxes imposed by the Central Government are of two types: Direct Taxes and Indirect Taxes.
The main types of Direct Taxes are: Personal Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Wealth Tax, Stamp Duty, etc.
The main forms of Indirect Taxes are Central Excise Duty, Import-Export Taxes, Service Tax and Foreign Travel Tax, etc.
Through taxation, the government aims at increased revenue collection.
Apart from taxes, the government generates revenue from other sources. This is called Non-Tax Revenue.
The revenue generated by the government which is intended to be used to create new properties in various fields of the economy, is called Capital Receipts.

Deficit Finance and Fiscal Deficit

The government generates the capital revenue mainly through loans from internal and external sources.
The loan obtained from citizens of the country, banks, financial institution and industries is called internal debt.
The loan obtained from foreign governments and foreign financial institutions is called foreign debt.
Apart from taking loans, the government generates capital revenue from other sources too.
Government withdraws its investment in public industries. This is called disinvestment.
The money obtained through disinvestment and repayment of loans is called non-debt capital receipts.
According to the definition of the Indian Planning Commission, deficit financing is ‘improving the net purchasing power in the economy through the budgetary provisions of the government.
The deficit is indicated by the negative sign (-).
There are four kinds of Deficit Financing: Revenue Deficit, Tax Deficit, Fiscal Deficit and Primary Deficit.
When the government is not able to overcome the fiscal deficit even after taking loans, the Reserve Bank of India gives loans to the government in the form of printing notes and putting them into circulation.
Fiscal deficit can be shown in the form of a formula in this manner:
Fiscal Deficit = (Revenue Receipts + Non-debt Capital Receipts) – Total Expenditure.

KSEEB SSLC Class 10 Biology Notes Karnataka State Syllabus

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 1 Development Notes

November 23, 2024March 25, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 1 Development Notes

The Meaning and Nature of Development and Underdevelopment

Every normal person in this world constantly aims to improve his standard of living.
Development refers to the progress of a particular field or a particular person.
The sum total of all the goods and services produced in a country during one year is called National Income.
The economic progress of a country is known as economic development.
Per capita income is the average income of a person in a country in one year.
The increase in national income also leads to an increase in the income of the people which enables them to afford quality education and health care.
People demand more goods and services as their standard of living improves.
There occurs an expansion in industrial and service sector which leads to an increase in employment opportunities.
The use of appropriate modern technology in the process helps to increase the productivity and increase the rate of economic development.
The economic development without excluding any portion of the population in the growth process is regarded as “inclusive growth’. It is regarded as real development.
The goods and services, as well as income produced in the country, should be shared as equally as possible among all the people.
In an underdeveloped economy, the production and per capita income are less.
A country which does not have a high per capita income and the standard of living is also low is considered as ‘underdeveloped country’.
The majority of people in such a country can’t afford the basic necessities of food, clothing, and shelter.
They suffer from diseases due to lack of sanitation and medical facilities.
India, during the British period, is an example of an underdeveloped economy.
According to World Development Report, all countries with middle income and low income are referred to as developing countries.
After Independence, India implemented five-year plans and accelerated economic developmental activities.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 1 Development Notes

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 1 Development Notes Indicators of Human Development

In order to measure the quality of human life, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has formed a criterion known as the Human Development Index (HDI).
The HDI is framed to measure longevity, knowledge and standard of living through three indicators namely:

Life expectancy
Educational achievements
Standard of living.
The age till which the people of a country can expect to survive is called the life expectancy.
Availability of nutritious food, excellent health and hygiene facilities, clean environment, etc., enables man to live longer.
As the educational level rises, the country’s economic progress also improves.
The standard of living is measured on the basis of Gross National Income per capita.
The average of these three indicators (such as health, education, income) is the Human Development Index (HDI) of a country.
On the basis of HDI, the countries of the world are classified into three groups.
The HDI of India has been rising steadily and in 2011 it was 0.547 and is grouped under the middle group of the countries which have achieved human development.
The role of women in the development process is very significant.
It is the duty of civilized society to provide social, economic, educational and political equality to all women.
After independence, our Constitution has assured equal freedom, equality, and opportunities to both men and women.
Many steps are being taken to eliminate gender discrimination.
The gender ratio is the average number of women per 1,000 men.
According to the 2011 census, male literacy was 82.14% while female literacy was 65.46%.
The ratio of the number of women working to that of the total number of women in the country is known as “Women’s Job Participation Rate’.
The government has provided opportunities for women to work in all fields.
Encouraging women to take social, economic and political decisions like men are called ‘Women Empowerment’.

KSEEB SSLC Class 10 Biology Notes Karnataka State Syllabus

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Sociology Chapter 3 Social Movements Notes

November 21, 2024March 25, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Sociology Chapter 3 Social Movements Mobs And Riots

Man is a social animal, and hence always lives in groups, communities societies.
Collective behaviour is an integral part of our social life.
The thoughts, feelings and behaviour of a large number of disorganizedpeople coming together accidentally constitute collective behaviour.
Human behaviour coming under the scope of collective behaviour includes mobs, rumours, propaganda, public opinion, revolution, social movements,etc.
When collective behaviour is organized and directed towards a specific goal and aims to bring about social change,it is called a movement. Environmental movements can be such an example.

Mob: An assembly of people around a common interest without any expectation or planning is called a mob.

Riots: Riots are another type of mob behaviour. Violent and destructive nature of mob behaviour is called a riot.

Environment Movement: The pollution of soil, air, water and biosphere with toxins and chemicals is called environmental pollution.

Developed countries are destroying the environment for the purpose of their luxurious life.
In addition, the unbridled growth of cities, proliferation of industries, technological progress, expansion of thetransport system, etc., are destroying the forests and polluting the environment.
Many intellectuals, environmentalists and others have expressed their agitations about the environmental pollution.
A few such important agitations against environmental pollution are Chipko Movement, Appiko Movement,Narmada Movement, Silent Valley Movement, and Movement against MRPL and Agitation against Kaiga.
Chipko Movement
Place – Tehri Garhwal District of Uttarakhand.

Took place in 1973 under the leadership of Shri Sunder Lal Bahuguna and Chandiprasad Bhatt.

As a result, the permission given to chop down the trees was withdrawn.

Appiko Movement,
Place – Salyani village in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka.
Took place in 1983, by the protest of the farmers.
They wanted to stop the smuggling of timber and develop awareness among the common people about theimportance of the environment.
Narmada Movement
Place – Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat.
Took place in 1973 under the leadership of Medha Patkar and Baba Amte.
The Supreme Court’s decision is still pending, seeking stoppage of construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Silent Valley Movement
Place-Palghat Taluk of Kerala.
The Kerala Sahitya Parishad and wild-life enthusiasts agitated against the construction of the dam.
The movement was successful in protecting many forms of flora and fauna.
Agitation against Kaiga
Place – Kaiga in Karnataka.
Dr. Shivaram Karanth and other intellectuals agitated against the set up of the nuclear power generation centre.
They felt that the nuclear power generation centre would cause loss of forest cover and pollute the environment.
Movement against MRPL
Place-Mangalore in Karnataka.
Environmentalist protested against the Mangalore Refineries and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL).
They realized that the refinery would affect the environment.
Agitation against Kaiga.

Women’s Movement, Alcohol Prohibition Movement, Farmer’s Movement

The exploitation of women has taken new forms like acid attacks, kidnaps and human trafficking.
The Labour Movement was for better working conditions and pay for the workers.
Untouchability is an inhuman practice of a stratified society.
The untouchability prevention movement is a movement aimed at achieving eradicating of the practice of untouchability and attacks on the untouchable people.
Total Alcohol Prohibition: Complete ban on alcohol
Periodical: Magazine
Trade Unions: Group of people of the same profession coming together
Tenancy system: Rental system
Chipko Movement: This movement took place in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand in 1973 under theleadership of Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna and Shri.
Chandiprasad Bhatt: The people hugged the trees and halted their destruction.
Appiko Movement: In 1983, the farmers of Salyani village in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka began the Appiko Movement’.
Narmada Movement: An agitation was launched against the construction of a dam across the Narmada river under
Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat. This movement was led by environmental activists, Medha Patkar and Baba Amte.
Silent Valley Movement: This movement was led by the Kerala Sahitya Parishad and wild-life enthusiasts. Theyagitated against the construction of a dam in the Silent Valley in
Palghat taluk of Kerala.
The movement against MRPL: Environmentalists protested against the ‘Mangalore Refineries and PetrochemicalsLimited’ (MRPL) in Mangalore in Karnataka.

KSEEB SSLC Class 10 Biology Notes Karnataka State Syllabus

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Sociology Chapter 2 Labour Notes

November 23, 2024March 25, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Sociology Chapter 2 Labour Notes Labour

Labour is an integral part of our economic life. It is essential to lead one’s life.

Division of labour means work being done by the people depending on their interests, tastes, abilities, age, expertise, skills and gender.
Division of labour leads to specialization.
Specialization means achieving sufficient expertise, training and skill in any particular field.
Division of labour has helped people to work in various fields and earn economic profit.
Division of labour creates the economic strata and class system.

Any physical activity which leads to the gain of material benefit is called paid work.

Indulging in activities without any definite purpose, but which gives mental satisfaction is called unpaid work.
Inequality at work and in wages is called labour discrimination.
In most of the countries, men are offered better jobs, higher responsibilities and remuneration while women get lesser responsibilities and remuneration.
The Central Government has passed Equal Wages Act in 1976.
In India, unemployment has become a serious problem.
Shortage of qualified people, physical inability, overpopulation, mechanization, strikes and closures of factories are the main causes for unemployment.

KSEEB SSLC Sociology Chapter 2 Labour Important Points

Labour: An act performed to achieve a particular goal.

Division of Labour: Work being done by people depending on their interests, tastes, abilities, age, expertise, skills and gender.

Specialization: Achieving sufficient expertise, training and skills in any particular field.

Paid Work: Any physical activity which leads to the gain of material benefit.

Unpaid Work: Activities indulged in without any definite purpose, but which gives mental satisfaction.

Unemployment: Inability to get work in spite of proper age, ability and interest.

Vocational Education: Educational training that provides practical experience in a particular occupational field, as agriculture, home economics or industry.

Unemployed: People who are willing to work but are denied an opportunity to do so.

Entrepreneur: A person who sets up a business or businesses, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Sociology Chapter 1 Social Stratification Notes

November 23, 2024March 25, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Solutions For SSLC Class 10 Sociology Chapter 1 Notes Social Stratification

The human takes birth in different places and grows up to become different from others due to the influence of the atmosphere, system, facilities and opportunities.

The human society which was created by these differences led to a stratification based on those differences.
Social stratification means the practice of classifying people on the basis of income, education, caste, colour, gender, occupation and intelligence.
Diversity is the main feature of human society.
In India, the human society is divided into different castes and communities.
The caste system has been in existence in India for thousands of years.
This system determines whether any person belongs to the upper caste or to the lower caste (shudras).
Shudras and untouchables were deprived of the right to food, employment and even the right to life.
Stratification can be seen in all societies. For example, the blacks in America or Africa were not permitted to attend the schools of the whites.
In India, untouchables were not allowed to take water from public wells or lakes.
Prejudice is the opinion formed by a person about another person or community even before he gets to know them. This kind of opinion may be positive or negative.
Social inequality leads to social conflicts.

Social Stratification: The practice of classifying people on the basis of income, education, caste, colour, gender, occupation, intelligence etc.

Occupation: Means of livelihood.

Segregation: The act of separating, especially when applied to separate people by race.

Prejudice: The opinion formed by a person about another person or community even before he gets to know them.

Stigma: A mark of the disgrace of infamy.

Social Stratification SSLC Sociology Untouchability A Social Evil

Untouchability is an inhuman practice of human society. Mahatma Gandhi called it a ‘stigma’ on the Hindu society.
The practice of untouchability is dying down as a result of the gradual increase in literacy.
Jyotiba Phule, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and others made a great contribution to eradicate untouchability.
At present, the Indian Constitution guarantees the provision of all facilities to people of all classes and castes.
Section 17 of the Constitution prohibits the practice of untouchability. The Untouchability Crime Act’ was implemented in 1955.
People belonging to backward castes, especially the scheduled castes or scheduled tribes have been provided reservation in educational, political, economic and employment opportunities.

At present, India has been striving to provide equal opportunities to all its citizens.

Untouchability: The practice of discrimination based on a person’s birth in a particular caste.

Segregation: The act of separating, especially when applied to separate people by race.

Untouchables: A section of people of society considered out castes and socially discarded.

Scheduled Castes: Those castes who have been socially backward and economically weaker since ages and have also been subjected to social discrimination.

Universal suffrage: The right of almost all adults to vote in political elections.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 3 Money and Credit Notes

November 23, 2024March 24, 2023 by Alekhya

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 3 Money and Credit Notes Importance, Evolution, and Functions of Money

Barter System: The barter system was used before the advent of money.
People used to exchange one thing for another in this system.
Money is a medium of exchange.
It acts as a unit of account, can store value and be used for repayment of debt.
Functions of money:

Primary Functions
Medium of Exchange: People can buy or sell goods and services with the help of money.
Measure of Value: Serves as a unit of account or common measure of value. The value of a good is determined by multiplying its price with quantity sold in the market.
Secondary Functions
Store of Value: Money also acts as a store of value.
Making Payments in Future: Money will always be acceptable at a future date as it has stored value.
Transfer of Value: The ease of transferring purchasing power from person to person and place too has expanded trade and commerce.
Types of money:
Commodity money: Commodity with a prescribed size and weight was adopted as money and everything else was measured in terms of that standard commodity.
Metallic money: Precious metals like Gold, Silver, Bronze, etc., began to be used as money for different denominations.
Paper currency: Written documents issued by well-known financiers which were not actual money, but were accepted and exchanged for money. Later governments started printing notes that had the guarantee of thegovernment.
Bank money: Cheques, drafts, deposit (credit) receipts, etc., are used as money.
Plastic money: Credit and debit cards.

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 3 Money And Credit Notes

KSEEB Class 10 SSLC Economics Chapter 3 Money and Credit Notes Banks

The major function of a bank is to give loans, particularly to businessmen and entrepreneurs and thereby earn interest.
Banks get money for providing loans by accepting the deposits from people.
Deposits are the lifeline of a bank. These are of two types: time deposits and demand deposits. Time deposits can be withdrawn only after a specified period of time. Demand deposits in the bank can be withdrawn on demand
by issuing cheques.
Credit (i.e. giving loans) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of future payments with interest.
Credit plays a vital and positive role in the society.

Reserve Bank of India and its Functions And Concept of Money Supply and its Measurement

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) supervises the functioning of formal sources of the loan.
In India, four measures of money supply are used to measure the monetary stock-M1, M2, M3, and M4.
M1 = currency notes and coins + net demand deposits held in commercial banks;
M2 – M1 + Savings deposits with Post Office savings banks;
M3 = M1 + Net time deposits of commercial banks; and
M4 = M3 + Total deposits with Post Office savings banks

Credit Control Measures Adopted By The RBI

Terms of credit include interest rate, collateral and documentation requirements and the mode of repayment.
The terms of credit may vary depending on the nature of the lender and the borrower.
Collateral is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicles, livestock etc.) and uses this as a guarantee to the lender until the loan is repaid.
Formal credit is generally available with the banks and cooperatives. They charge lesser rates of interest than informal institutions.
Informal lenders include moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives, and friends etc. They charge much higher interest on loans. There is no one to stop them from using unfair means to get their money back
Credit control measures are broadly classified into two types, namely
quantitative control measures, and
qualitative or selective control measures.

KSEEB SSLC Class 10 Biology Notes Karnataka State Syllabus